DISCOURSE ANALYSIS : LEXICAL COHESION

 LEXICAL COHESION

Lexical cohesion refers to the lexical relation used in a text. Three main types of lexical cohesion : repetition, systematic semantic relations, and non-systematic semantic relations : synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, hyperonymy, meronymy, holonymy, co-hyponymy, co-meronymy. And in the non-systematic semantic relations : collocation relation.

a.       Repetition

Repetition is a word reduplication. It includes inflection and derivation.

Example : do – does – did – doing

 

b.      Systematic smantic relations

·         Synonymy

A similarity of meaning among words.

Example : leave – depart, happy – pleased

 

·         Antonymy

A set of lexical items which are contrasting meaning

Example : leave – arrive

 

·         Hyponymy

One word represent “ a class of thing and the second either a subclass, or another class at the same level” (general items)

Example : novel, comic, magazine – book

 

·         Hyperonymy

One word represent  “a subclass or another class at the same level of thing and the second is class of thing” (general items)

Example : flower – rose, jasmine

 

·         Meronymy

A word that refers to parts of a whole (whole items)

Example : trunk, branch, leaf – tree

 

·         Holonymy

A word that refer to whole to the part item (whole items)

Example : tree – trunk, branch, leaf

·         Co-hyponymy

Two specific items which share/ part a common general item

 

·         Co-meronymy

Two items which are parts of members of the same item

 

Example :

Solar system : sun as a star; venus, earth, mercury as instances of the 8 planets

Venus and mercury being planets are co-hyponymy.

Earth as a planet and the sun as a star are members of the solar system thus co-meronymy

 

c.       Non-systematic relations

·         Collocation

Collocation refers to the tendency of words to co-occur.

 

For example, when one sees the noun pipe  in a sentence, it is more probable that the verb to smoke will also appear in the sentence. In another example, the noun bicycle  could more likely occur with the verb to ride  than any random verb.

 

Note :

 

Noun + Noun

Adjective + Noun

Adjective + Preposition

Verb + Adjective

Noun + Verb

Verb + Preposition  => take off, turn off

Verb = Noun

TUGAS ENGLISH ACADEMIC PURPOSE : MOTIVATION

 

MOTIVATION

 

A.    Theories of  motivation

According to Robert D. Pritchard (2008: 6) The word motivation is sometimes used to describe how hard someone is willing to work to accomplish something: you might say that a colleague is highly motivated to finish a project. It can also describe what inspires someone: one person may be motivated by recognition, another by pay raises.  Motivation is how we choose to allocate that energy to different actions to achieve the greatest satisfaction of our needs.[1]

Meanwhile, Herbert L. Petri (2013: 4) define that motivation is the concept we use when we describe the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior. We also use the concept of motivation to explain differences in the intensity of behavior.[2]

Moreover, Richard Denny (2009: 7) state that motivation is getting somebody to do something because they want to do it.[3] Likewise, John Adair (2006: 1) say that A man or woman is motivated when he or she WANTS to do something. A motive is not quite the same as an incentive. Whereas a person may be inspired or made enthusiastic by an incentive, his or her main motive for wanting to do something may be fear of punishment. Motivation covers ALL the reasons which underlie the way in which a person acts.[4]

According to david Kember (2016: 79) Motivation is a function of the student’s personality and/or background and not something which can be influenced by the curriculum design or the nature of the teaching and learning environment.[5]

Meanwhile, Johnmarshall Reeve (2009 : 8) state that a motive is an internal process that energizes and directs behavior. It is therefore a general term to identify the common ground shared by needs, cognitions, and emotions. [6]

According to Donald Laming (2004: 2) motivation means the switching on of some pattern of behavior, of a program of action specified within the individual. That program might be innate or it might have been modified by experience.[7]

From the definition above we can conclude that motivation is an incentive or inspiration when we want to work to accomplish something or getting somebody to do something that they want.

 

B.     Indicators of motivation

1.      Why people decide to do something,

2.      How long they are willing to sustain the activity,

3.      How hard they are going to pursue it.[8]

4.      Making learning stimulating and enjoyable;

5.      Presenting tasks in a motivating way;

6.      Setting specific learner goals;

7.      Protecting the learners’ self-esteem and increasing their selfconfidence;

8.      Allowing learners to maintain a positive social image;

9.      Promoting cooperation among the learners;

10.  Creating learner autonomy;

11.  Promoting self-motivating learner strategies.[9]

12.  Aching wish to do.

13.  Time allocation that available to learn.

14.  Willingness to leave duty or other task.

15.  Perseverance to do the task.

16.  Defending his argument.

17.  Not giving up on facing trouble.

18.  More like to stand alone.

19.  Shows an interest in various adult problems.

 

C.    Instrument of motivation

According to Robert Pritchard and Elissa Ashwood (2008: 10) Some of the signs of low motivation are obvious, some not so obvious. However, if the symptoms above are common in your work unit, you probably have a motivation problem.[10]

 

One-Minute Assessment

Do you have a motivation problem? Start by taking the short quiz in Table You can answer the questions for yourself or for your work group.

 

Table

Motivation Symptoms Questionnaire: Do You Have a Motivation Problem?[11]

 

No	Do you or the people in your group …	Rarely or Never	Sometimes	Often
1	Avoid unpleasant tasks	1	2	3
2	Work inefficiently and do not want to become more efficient	1	2	3
3	Focus on following rules rather than the best way to get the work done	1	2	3
4	Resist new ideas and new ways of doing things	1	2	3
5	Generate few innovative ideas	1	2	3
6	Put in the least possible amount of effort	1	2	3
7	Avoid taking on additional work	1	2	3
8	Avoid work—arriving late, leaving early, prolonged breaks or lunches, excessive Internet surfing, absenteeism	1	2	3
9	Not put in the effort to finish work properly	1	2	3
10	Give up on difficult tasks	1	2	3
11	Lack enthusiasm for the work	1	2	3
12	Have low job satisfaction	1	2	3
13	Have little loyalty to the unit or organization	1	2	3
14	Have low commitment to the goals of the unit or organization	1	2	3
15	Frequently report stress	1	2	3
16	Frequently report fatigue	1	2	3
17	Have chronic physical problems (fatigue, migraines, lower back pain, trouble sleeping)	1	2	3
18	Show a lack of cooperation with co-workers	1	2	3
19	Have frequent complaints about management and co-workers	1	2	3
20	Blame others for problems	1	2	3
21	Frequently complain about seemingly small issues	1	2	3
	Total score =

 

D.    Assessement

1.      Scoring rubric of motivation[12]

21–30	Green Light	Motivation looks good
31–45	Yellow Light	Some motivation problems
46–63	Red Light	Serious motivation problems

 

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[1] Robert D. Pritchard & Elissa L. Ashwood, Managing Motivation : A Manager’s Guide To Diagnosing And Improving Motivation, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, (USA : 2008), Page 6

[2] Herbert L. Petri & John M. Govern, Motivation: Theory, Research And Application, Sixth Edition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, (Canada : 2013), Page 4

[3] Richard Denny, Motivate To Win : Learn How To Motivate Yourself And Others To Really Get Results 3rd Edition, Kogan Page Limited, (London : 2009), Page 6

[4] John Adair, Leadership and Motivation: The Fifty-Fifty Rule and the Eight Key Principles of Motivating Others, Kogan Page, ( London : 2007), Page 1

[5] David Kember, Understanding The Nature Of Motivation And Motivating Students Through Teaching And Learning In Higher Education, Springer, (Singapore : 2016), Page 79

[6] Johnmarshall Reeve, Understanding Motivation And Emotion Fifth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, (USA : 2009), Page 8

[7] Donald Laming, Understanding Human Motivation : What Makes People Tick, Wiley-Blackwell,  (Australia : 2003) Page 2

[8] Zoltán Dörnyei & Ema Ushioda, Teaching And Researching Motivation Second Edition, Pearson Education Limited, (Great Britain : 2011), Page 4

[9] Ibid, Page 118

[10] Robert D. Pritchard & Elissa L. Ashwood, Managing Motivation : A Manager’s Guide To Diagnosing And Improving Motivation, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, (USA : 2008), Page 10

[11] Ibid, Page 11

[12] Ibid, Page 10