A Paper
BILINGUALISM AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Presented to Fulfill the Requirement of the Task of Psycholinguistics
Subject Guided by : Trisna Dinillah Harya, M.Pd
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. BILINGUALISM
1. The Definition of Bilingualism
Longman Dictionary explained that bilingualism is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation.[1]
According to Valdez and Figueora (as cited in Alexandra Gottardo and Amy Grant’s journal) said that bilingualism is “knowing” two languages.[2]
Moreover, Bloomfield defined bilingualism as “native-like control of two languages”. However, this definition excludes many people who speak more than one language but do not have “native-like” control of one or both of their languages. A large number of people who use two languages regularly may not have 'native-like' control of one of their languages. It is clear that Bloomfield's definition of bilingualism needs to be modified if it is to reflect accurately the reality of people's ability to use languages.
In addition, Haugen suggests that bilingualism begins “at the point where a speaker of one language can produce complete, meaningful utterances in the other language”. Besides, Diebold has even suggested that bilingualism has commenced when a person begins to understand utterances in a second language, but is unable to produce utterances.[3]
From those definitions above, we can understand that bilingualism is people who have ability to use two languages.
2. Degrees of Bilingualism
A major difficulty occurs in defining what it means to “know” a language. Some bilinguals are highly proficient in both languages they speak, while other bilinguals clearly have a dominant or preferred language. Therefore, when classifying bilinguals it is important to consider varying degrees of bilingualism.[4]
Degrees of bilingualism can be assessed in the individual's command of the four skills of listening comprehension, speaking, reading comprehension and writing in each language. In addition, people who are bilingual in all four skills can have different levels of skill in each language.[5]
Valdés also discusses the issue of degree when she says “the term bilingual implies not only the ability to use two languages to some degree in everyday life, but also the skilled superior use of both languages at the level of the educated native speaker”. She acknowledges that this is a narrow definition, for it considers the bilingual as someone who can “do everything perfectly in two languages and who can pass undetected among monolingual speakers of each of these two languages”. This she refers to as the “mythical bilingual.” She argues that there are, in fact, different types of bilinguals and that it is, therefore, more appropriate to think of bilingualism as a continuum with different amounts of knowledge of the L1 and L2 being represented. In this view, the term bilingualism can refer to the process of learning as well as the end result, the product of learning.[6]
It can be understood that someone may become bilingual if they have two languages ability. Not only in speaking, but also in listening, reading, and writing.
3. Kinds of Bilingualism
There are five kinds of bilingualism, they are:
a. Co-ordinate and Compound Bilingualism
Ervin and Osgood distinguished between compound and co-ordinate bilingualism according to differences in cognitive functioning. Compound bilingualism involves two sets of linguistic signs which become associated with a single set of meanings. Coordinate bilingualism involves a set of translation equivalents in the two languages which correspond to two different sets of representations. The distinction between these two types of bilingualism involves a difference in cognitive organization of linguistic material in the brain it does not in itself indicate a difference in competence. Co-ordinate bilingualism tends to be developed through an experience of different contexts in which the two languages are rarely interchanged, whereas compound bilingualism tends to be developed through contexts in which the two languages are rarely interchanged, whereas compound bilingualism tends to be developed through contexts such as formal language learning in school or continual switching from one language to another.
b. Simultaneous and Successive Bilingualism
McLaughlin maintains that when a child learns two languages simultaneously it is inappropriate to talk about the child's first and second languages. Both languages are in effect first languages, although one may dominate in certain situations or with certain people. For McLauglin, simultaneous bilingualism could occur at any age less than a cut-off age of three years. Therefore, a 2 year old Portuguese speaking child who moves to Australia and begins to acquire English would be considered to be acquiring both languages simultaneously. McLauglin felt that below the age of three, the child's first language was not yet established but that after the age of three the child has had a considerable head start in acquiring one language and is establishing first language patterns. It can no longer be considered that the child is acquiring both languages simultaneously.
When a language is acquired after the first language is established, McLaughlin talks of successive acquisition. In this case, the first and second languages can be clearly differentiated and the added language is learned as a second language. Thus, a Tagalog speaking child who moves to Australia from the Philippines at the age of four and a half will already have acquired a large amount of Tagalog as a first language, when this child is exposed to English s/he will begin learning it as a second language.
Simultaneous acquisition of two languages is not necessarily superior to successive acquisition and both patterns of acquisition can lead to bilingual competence. A child's bilingual ability does not so much depend on how early a language is introduced as on other factors such as the relative prestige of the languages, cultural factors and opportunities for use. For example, a child who acquires two languages simultaneously may lose one of those languages when contact with that language is lost whereas a child who has acquired two languages successively but has continued contact with both languages may become a balanced bilingual.
c. Additive and Subtractive Bilingualism
Lambert distinguishes two types of bilingualism (additive bilingualism and subtractive bilingualism). Additive bilingualism develops when both languages and the culture associated with them bring complementary positive elements to the child's overall development.
Subtractive bilingualism, however, develops when the two languages are competing rather than complementary. Such competition occurs when the minority language is being replaced by the more dominant and prestigious language of the majority group. Lambert states that the level of bilingualism achieved will “reflect some stage in the subtraction of the ethnic language and the associated culture, and their replacement with another”. Subtractive bilingualism results, for example, when a child is educated in the more prestigious language without appropriate support for his/her home language in the education program.
d. Elite and Folk Bilingualism
Elite bilinguals typically become bilingual through a free choice to learn a language. Elite bilingualism has always been highly valued and considered a form of cultural enrichment and a mark of learning and intelligence. The risk associated with failing to learn the second language is small and is equal to the consequences of failing in any other area of curriculum. Students who do not excel in language studies are usually able to discontinue the area of study and concentrate their attention on other subject areas.
Folk bilingualism, however, has frequently been stigmatized and has often been associated with educational controversies related to the integration of minority children into the majority society. It is not, however, the type of bilingualism or the way a language is acquired that are the cause of problems in education for folk bilingual children but rather a combination of social and other factors.
Folk bilinguals are typically members of linguistic minority groups and are subject to strong external pressure to learn the dominant language. As such, they are forced by circumstances to become bilingual in their own language and in the dominant language. Their home language is often unvalued in the wider community and usually has limited or no official status. Failure to acquire the dominant language adequately can have drastic repercussions for these children. A child whose second language skills are limited is usually excluded from further educational opportunities and will be unable to compete in the labor market with children who are fluent in the dominant language. Such a child will face restrictions on his/her access to the life of the larger community.
Folk bilinguals may also suffer difficulties due to the education system's lack of support for speakers of non-dominant languages. These children frequently enter classes taught in a language they do not speak, and often find themselves in the same class as native speakers of the dominant language. Moreover, for many speakers of minority languages, general educational prospects for successful learning and for their acquisition of the dominant language are dependent to some extent on the continued development of their first language and of the conceptual basis they have already gained. If the education system does not assist children in this development, the result can be severe educational difficulties for these children.
e. Balanced Bilingualism
Balanced bilingualism has a range of meanings for different writers. For Haugen a balanced bilingual is an individual who has native-like competence in both languages. More frequently, however, the term is used to refer to an individual who has roughly equal ability in both languages. This would mean that someone whose performance was imperfect in both languages would still be a balanced bilingual if his/her skills in each language were about the same. Most bilinguals are usually dominant in one language or the other, although they may not be dominant in the same language in all areas.[7]
B. SECOND LANGUANGE ACQUISITION
1. The Definition of Second Language Acquisition
According to Muriel Saville-Troike, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.[8]
Moreover, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the study of how students learn a second language (L2) additionally to their first language (L1). Although it is referred as Second Language Acquisition, it is the process of learning any language after the first language whether it is the second, third or fourth language. Therefore, any other language apart from the first language is called a second language (SL) or also referred to as a target language (TL).[9]
In addition, SLA refers to the process of learning another language after the native language has been learned. Sometimes the term refers to the learning of a third or fourth language. The important aspect is that SLA refers to the learning of a nonnative language after the learning of the native language. The second language is commonly referred to as the L2.[10]
It can be understood that Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a way in which people learn another language after they mastering their mother tongue. Sometimes it can refers to the second, third or fourth language.
2. The Five Stages of Second Language Acquisition
The process of Second Language Acquisition occurs in stages. In order to examine SLA, it is important to look at the 5 stages of second language acquisition. According to Haynes, they are:
a. Preproduction and is also referred to as “the silent period” where learners gradually build up their vocabulary to about 500 words without speaking the language but more echoing the language.
b. Early Production and at this stage learners will have around 1000 word vocabulary with the capacity of constructing words in short phrases and memorize and use short language forms although not necessarily correctly.
c. Speech Emergence, where learners have acquired around 3000 words and should be able to speak short sentences and simple phrases. By now, learners should be able to engage in conversation and ask simple questions. Also they can understand short stories if they are supported with pictures.
d. Intermediate Fluency, he explains that the learners have an active vocabulary of 6000 words. Also, he adds that students can now form longer and more complex phrases both spoken and written with grammatical errors but demonstrate excellent comprehension.
e. Advanced Fluency and as he points out, it takes around 5- 10 years to achieve proficiency in second language acquisition and by now the learners are considered near-native. Indeed, Haynes says that on the surface it might look quite effortless to learn a second language but there are various factors that can have impact on the learning process such as motivation and age.[11]
[1] Jack C. Richards and Richard Schmidt, Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics Fourth Edition, (Great Britain: Pearson Education Limited, 2010), p. 55
[2] Alexandra Gottardo and Amy Grant, Defining Bilingualism, (Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University, 2014), p. 1
[3] Anthony Liddicoat, Bilingualism: An Introduction, (Australia: ERIC Clearinghouse, 1991), p. 2
[4] Alexandra Gottardo and Amy Grant, Loc. Cit.
[5] Anthony Liddicoat, Op.Cit.
[6] Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker, Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course Third edition, (United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis, 2008), p. 26
[7] Anthony Liddicoat, Op.Cit.
[8] Muriel Saville-Troike, Introducing Second Language Acquisition, (United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 2
[9] Einar Garibaldi Stefánsson, Second Language Acquisition: The Effect of Age and Motivation, (Sigillum University Islandiae, 2013), p. 2
[10] Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker, Op.Cit.
[11] Einar Garibaldi Stefánsson, Op. Cit.
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