CHILDREN AND ADULT IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
Presented to Fulfill the Requirement of the Task of Psycholinguistics
Subject Guided By Trisna Dinillah Harya, M.Pd.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of Study
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the study of how students learn a second language (L2) additionally to their first language (L1). Although it is referred as Second Language Acquisition, it is the process of learning any language after the first language whether it is the second, third or fourth language. Therefore, any other language apart from the first language is called a second language (SL) or also referred to as a target language (TL).
To distinguish between Second Language and Foreign Language, The Collins Dictionary defines Second Language as the language that a person learns after his or her native language and Foreign Language as a language that is used in a country other than one’s native country [1].There are different ways to acquire second or foreign languages. It can be in a formal way as in a classroom environment or informal way such as when the learner picks up the language by being culturally active participant of the society. This can be done by attending school in the target country, watching local television, listening to radio or/and reading newspapers in L2. By being actively involved in the learning environment, the learner is constantly in contact with the target language through normal daily routines. It is extremely important in second language acquisition to look at the learning environment and investigate if the age factor has any effect.
Also, motivation is another significant factor of SLA that needs to be discussed to find out if it is related to higher language competences[2]. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and Early Language Learning (ELL) have been thoroughly investigated over the years and there is a popular belief that second language acquisition among children is achieved relatively fast and without effort[3]. However, more recent studies post criticism on this widely spread claim of the effortless and quick second language competence among children [4]. Although age plays a significant role in SLA, the benefit of motivation and exposure can provide better results in achieving complete second language proficiency.
B. Problem Identification
1. What is Second language learning?
2. How many Basic Psychological factors affecting second-language learning?
3. What is the difference between children and adult in second language learning?
C. Problem Formulation
1. To find out what is second language learning
2. To find out how many psychological factors that affect in second language learning
3. To find out the differences between children and adult in second language learning.
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. Second Language Learning/Second Language Acquisition
Learning is a process in which people study to acquire or obtain knowledge or skills. Second language is another language after one’s native language. Second language learning is a process of internalizing and making sense of a second language after one has an established first language. Many think that second language learning is the same as second language acquisition. In fact, it differs in some ways. Krashen, defines learning as a process between acquiring and utterance. It can be said that language acquisition happens in subconscious system while language learning happen in conscious system[5]. Many think that second language learning is the same as second language acquisition. In fact, it differs in some ways. Learning a second language is different from learning first language. Learning first language has been started since one is just a baby who does not have the ability to speak and only able to deliver message by babbling, cooing and crying. However, second language is learned after one is able to speak and has absorbed knowledge, which influenced him/her in learning a second language, both positively and negatively. Furthermore, there are some examples of learning theories which are used in language learning over years; behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Learning theory is applicable only if we recognize the differences between children and adults in learning a second language.
B. Basic Psychological factors affecting second-language learning
1. Intellectual Processing
a. Explication is a process whereby the rules and structures of a second language are explained to a learner. It is rarely applicable to young children, simple rules can be learned.
b. Induction is a learning rules by self-discovery is the essence of the process of induction. Repeatedly exposed to words, phrases and sentences along with relevant situations that give some indication as to their meaning.
2. Memory
a. Syntax learning and episodic memory
Memory is crucial for the learning of grammatical structures and rules. Episodic memory: the learner must remember the situations in which the sentences are uttered in order to derive the meaning.
b. Children’s memory ability
7 to 12 years old: cognitive ability
Under 7 years old: rote memorization
3. Motor Skills
a. Articulators of speech
Motor skills: the use of muscles in performing certain skills (e.g., walking, writing, speech).
b. Decline in general motor skills
Around at the age of 12 years: due to some change in central functioning in the brain.
c. Decline in ability for new articulations
Children have the flexibility in motor skills that adults generally have lost.
4. Motivation
a. Motivation (according to the situation)
1) At the age of 1-2: no motivation.
2) At the age of 4-5: need motivation
3) The planned learning situation(classroom) : need motivation
b. Other variables involved in second language learning: personality, social situation, intergroup attitude, self-confidence, desire etc.
5. Attitude
a. Attitude: negative vs. positive determination, persistence.
b. Other variables involved in second language learning: status, cultural background.
6. Social situations
a. Natural situation: it is similar to that in which the first language is learned.
|
|
Memory |
Motor skills |
Induction |
Natural Situation |
|
Children |
High |
High |
High |
High |
|
Adult |
Medium |
Low |
High |
Low |
b. Classroom situation: it involves the social situation of the school classroom.
|
|
Cognitive experience |
Memory |
Motor skill |
|
Older child |
Low |
High |
High |
|
Adult |
High |
Medium |
Low |
c. Community context: it allows students to have access to a natural situation and thereby supplement their classroom learning.
C. The Differences Between Children and Adult in Second Language Learning
Compared to children, adults have different ways to process a foreign language in their brains. According to Tippin in his article, a research conducted by Dr. Paul Thompson and other neuroscientists from UCLA, children use a part of their brains called “deep motor area” to process language information[6]. Deep motor area is a part of the brain which processes the activity that is not thought about or happens without thinking consciously, such as reading a sentence, blinking and breathing. It is like an automatic function of the child’s brain which is used to acquire language, so it becomes a natural process for the child. Children acquire and learn language intuitively, while adults think about it actively so it becomes “intellectual process” for them. It is because when a person turns 18, the deep motor area narrowly shuts. Hence, adults have to collect language information that they got in an area which is still active. Thompson said neurological level of brain operates distinctively even though an adult with comprehensive training feels he/she speaks instinctively.
The second difference is unlike children, adults are able to digest abstract or formal thinking cognitively. Children have no merit or detention of formal operational thought in learning language. Children’s cognitive abilities have not been developed while adults’ is mature cognitively. Before we go further, we need to know what cognitive abilities are. Cognitive abilities are skills based on brain to accomplish human activity from the simplest to the most complex ones such as how to learn, pay attention, focus, problem-solve and memorize. However, for children, these abilities are still under developed. That is why children cannot develop their “formal operational thought”. “Formal operational thought” is when people can think in abstract conditioning, combine and analyze things in a more elaborate way. Children cannot draw a conclusion from an abstract thinking. In contrast, adults have gained this ability which leads them to metalinguistic knowledge in which one is aware of the use of language and realizes that sentence may have its literal and implied meaning and analytic abilities which refers to the skills of picking up information, visualizing, solving complex problems, analyzing and making decision as well as conclusion. Because of this, they are aware of their utterances and compare it to their conscious knowledge. For example, children will find it difficult to catch the implied meaning when somebody says “it is very hot in here.”On the other hand, adults will find out the implied meaning beyond its literal meaning and maybe respond it not by saying something but by doing something like open the window or turn on the AC. It is because the sentence contains abstract reasoning which put the meaning beyond the utterances that actually can be analyzed by gestures, tone, and facial expression of the person saying and children do not have yet the ability to think and analyze that way.
The last difference is adults are more conscious that they are learning than children are. Children mostly learn without awareness of their proficiency and motivation. Even if their proficiency of second language is limited, they do not feel nervous as much as adults do. This is because adults have pride of not making mistakes. Thus adults pay more attention when they speak in second language. It can be said that adults learn second language in an analytic way. They tend to monitor their second language speech and avoid taking the risk of making mistakes. Majority of adults often feel embarrassed by their lack of comprehension of the second language they are learning. Different from adults, children learn second language in a natural way. They absorb language information they got from teachers, parents and people around them without thinking if it is true and beneficial for them. According to Brown in his book Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, children are not aware of social values and attitudes put on language. They produce utterances effortlessly compare to adults. Self-consciousness of adults in second language learning affects them to filter and analyze whether they use the correct grammar and vocabularies when they are talking and whether the sentence they are saying has the right meaning and context[7]. That may be the answer why adults often correct themselves when they are talking, either correcting the grammar or the words. They know they have to monitor and filter the utterances they produce to reduce mistakes and to show that it is only a mistake, which means they know immediately that is wrong and they can correct it after or by the time they speak and not an error where they do not realize that the utterance they speak is wrong, so they cannot correct it until somebody tells them it is wrong or until they eventually find it out wrong later.
Despite having many different characteristics, children and adults have two things in common in learning a second language.
The first similarity is imitating as a way which is used by both children and adults to learn second language. Because adults have the experience in comprehensive learning, they know how to imitate surface structure. Therefore, they are paying more attention to grammar and surface features while children are paying more attention to the meaning of the utterance. The most important is they can deliver the message to the person they are talking to without paying too much attention to the grammar or proper vocabularies. In addition, children learn by imitating people around them such parents and teachers. They will imitate the way those people say something to deliver a message. For adults, they usually imitate native speakers by watching movies or reading books. They imitate the idioms, accent and the pronunciation said by the native speakers. By reading books, they imitate the structure of the sentence.
Both children and adults apply meaningful learning. Adults are able to relate their experiences or existing knowledge to the second language they are learning about because adults have cognitive framework. According to Weick, a professor at the Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan, cognitive framework is a system where people make interpretation of what information and experience they got into something reasonable. By having this, they can transfer the knowledge of their first language to help them learning a second language or relating the new learning materials to what they already know. Even though it is said that children are rote learners by using aimless repetition and mimicking, children actually practice contextual and purposeful activity by using imitation to learn. It is not meaningless, it is not categorized to rote learning because by using imitating to learn a second language, children acquire and store the items and information to an “established conceptual hierarchy” in their minds. Afterwards, those are kept on their memory then it forms a larger and broader understanding comprehensively in cognitive structure called ”systematic forgetting” which the details can be recalled anytime.
Conclusion
Although adults and children are alike in the way of imitating and using meaningful learning for second language learning, they have their own characteristics. In order to be successful learners, both adults and children have to adopt the learning strategies based on the characteristics they have. Therefore, adults have to realize that they have different characteristics with children, so they cannot learn a second language in the same way as children do. Not only the learners but also the teachers have to be aware of this. By analyzing the differences between adults and children, teachers as the ones who give guidance and instruction during the second language learning can apply the appropriate methods.
References
Brown, H. Douglas. 1941. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York : Pearson Education
Krashen, Stephen D. 2002. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.California : Pergamon Press
Tippin, Chilton. 2011. Why Adults Can Learn Language More Easily Than Children. Accessed from http://www.accuconference.com/blog/Why-Adults-Can-Learn-Languages-More-Easily-Than-Children.aspx in May 5th, 2018
[1] http://www.collinsdictionary.com
[2] Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House Publishers.
[3] Nikolov, M., & Djigunovic, J. M. (2006). Recent research on age, second language acquisition and early foreign language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 234-260. In journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=530504
[4] Haynes, J. (2007). Getting started with English language learners How educators can meet the challenge. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
[5] Krashen, Stephen D. 2002. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.California : Pergamon Press
[6] Tippin, Chilton. 2011. Why Adults Can Learn Language More Easily Than Children.
[7] Brown, H. Douglas. 1941. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York : Pearson Education
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