INTRODUCTION
As
a language teacher you must take decisions all of the time. Some of your
decisions are relatively minor ones-should homework be assigned that particular
day, for instance. Other decisions have more profound implications. What should
be the goal of language instruction? Which language teaching method will be the
most effective in reaching it? What is the best means of evaluation to see if
it has been reached? There is no single correct answer to questions like these.
Each of you has to answer them for yourself. We believe, however, that a
teacher informed choices is, after all, what teaching is all about (Stevick
1982; Larsen-Freeman 1983, 1983b).
The
first purpose of this chapter, therefore, is to provide information to teachers
and teacher trainees about ten methods of foreign language teaching. By reading
this material you will gain an understanding of the principles on with these
methods are based and of the techniques associated with each method. These
methods were chosen because they are all currently practiced today. It is not
our purpose to convince you of the superiority of any one of them; indeed, the
inclusion of a method in this chapter should not be construed as an endorsement
of that method. What is being recommended is that, in the interest of becoming
informed about existing choices, you investigate each method?
The
second purpose for this chapter is to encourage you to examine your own beliefs
about teaching and learning and about how you put these into practice. Even
those of you with a great deal of teaching experience stand to benefit from
considering the principles of these methods. Perhaps such consideration will
help you to understand better why you do what you do.
However,
we do not expect that you will abandon the way you teach now in order to wholly
adopt one of these methods. We do think that there will be some new techniques
here worthy of your attention. Although certain techniques are associated with
particular principles, most techniques can be adapted to any teaching style and
situation. It is not so much the technique itself as the way a teacher works
with it that makes the difference.
Therefore
do not be quick to divest a technique because, at first glance, it appears to
be at odds with your own beliefs or to be impossible to apply to your own
situation. For example, in one of the methods we will consider, teachers
frequently make use of a tape recorder to record student speaking the language
they are studying. If you reject this technique as impractical because you do
not have a tape recorder, you may be missing out on something valuable. You
should first ask what the purpose of the tape recorder is: Is there a principle
behind its use in which you believe and which you can provide in another way,
say, by writing down the students’ sentences on the blackboard rather than
recording them? So try, then, as you read this material, to imagine how to
adapt these techniques creatively to your own situation. You are limited only
by your imagination.
Next,
we will learn about these methods by entering a classroom where a particular
method is being practiced. We will observe the techniques are teacher is using
and his or her behavior. In the event numbered chapters, the teacher is female;
in the odd-numbered chapters, the teacher is male. After observing a lesson we
will try to infer the principles on which the teacher’s behavior and techniques
are based. Although we will observe only the one beginning or
intermediate-level class for each method, once the principles are clear, they
can be applied to any other level class in any other situation.[1]
DISCUSSION
In
this chapter we focus on methods as the identifying characteristics of a
century of “modern” language teaching efforts. What do mean by the term
“method” by which we tend to characterize that history? How do methods reflect
various trends of disciplinary thought? How does current research on language
learning and teaching help us to distinguish, in our history, between passing
fads and “the good stuff”? These are some of the questions will address in this
chapter.
In
the next chapter, this historical overview culminates in a close look at the
current state of the art in language teaching. Above all, you will come to see
how our profession is now more appropriate characterized by a relative unified,
comprehensive “approach” rather than competing, restricted methods. The general
approach will be described in detail, along with some of the current
professional jargon associated with it.
As
you read on, you will encounter references to concepts, constructs, issues, and
models that are normally covered in a course in second language acquisition
(SLA).
In
the century spanning the mid 1880s to the mid 1980s, the language-teaching
profession was involved in a search. That search was for what was popularly
called “method”, or ideally, a single method, general across widely varying
audiences that would successfully teach student a foreign language in the
classroom. Historical accounts of the profession tend therefore to describe a
succession of methods, each of which is more or less discarded as a new method
takes its place. We will turn to that “methodical” history of language teaching
in a moment, but first, we should try to understand what we mean by method.[2]
A.
METHOD
1.
The
Definition of Methods
In etymological,
the term is derived from the Greek method, namely Metodos. This word consists
of two syllables, namely "Metha" which means through or pass and
"Hodos" which means path or way. Method means the way to go to
achieve the goal.
While experts provide insight into the following
observation:
a. Edward Anthony (1963), method was described as an
overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected
approach.
b. H. Douglas Brown (Longman: Second Edition), method a
generalized set of classroom specifications of accomplishing linguistic
objectives. Method tends to be concerned primarily with teacher and student
role and behavior and secondarily with such features as linguistic and
subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are almost always thought
of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of
contexts.
c. According to Richards and Rodgers, method was an
umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of the theory and
practice (1982:154).
Based on
the definitions of the methods above, we can conclude that the method is a plan
of learning use selected approach to reach as linguistic and subject-matter
objectives, sequencing, and materials based on theory and practice.
2.
These are some example
of the method that already derived till present day:
a.
Grammar Translation
Method
It is a method
for which there is no theory. There is not literature that offers a rationale
or justification for it or that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics,
psychology, or educational theory. As you continue to examine language teaching
methodology in this book, I think you will understand more fully the “Theory-lessens”
of the grammar translation method.
b.
Gouin
and The Series Method
Gouin
method talks about devise a teaching method that would follow from these
insights. And thus the series method was created, a method that taught learners
directly (without translation) and conceptually (without grammatical rules and
explanation) a ”series” of connected sentence that are easy to perceive.[3]
c.
The
Direct Method
The
Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed. In fact, the Direct Method receives its name
from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language
through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students'
native language (Diller 1978). [4]
d.
Audio-lingual
Method
The
Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method we have just examined, is also an
oral-based approach. However, it is very different in that rather than
emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situations,
the Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use of grammatical sentence
patterns. It also, unlike the Direct Method, has a strong theoretical base in
linguistics and psychology.[5]
e.
Cognitive Code Learning
Cognitive code learning was not so much a method as
it was an approach that emphasized it conscious awareness of rules and their
applications to second language learning. It is an amalgamation (collaboration)
of audio-lingual and grammar translation method. Classes retain the drilling
typical of audio-lingual method (ALM) but add healthy doses of rile explanation
and reliance on grammatical sequencing of material.[6]
f.
Community Language
Learning
These methods attempted to capitalize on the
perceived importance of psychological factors in language learner’s success. At
the time they were touted as “innovative” and “revolutionary” especially when
compared to audio lingual or grammar translation methodology.[7]
g.
Suggestopedia
The principles of the method are derived from
observations based on control experiments the method is thought to be more
concerned with irrational and unconscious processes.[8]
h.
The Silent Way
In this method the role of language teachers is
relatively less silent so that language learners are encouraged to be more
active in producing as much language as possible. A language teacher should
encourage language learners to take rote in learning activities. The time of
learning teaching interaction should be given to language learners, not to the
teacher.[9]
i.
Total Physical Response
(TPR)
Language learners should understand the target
language before speaking. Language learners can learn through observing actions
as well as by performing the actions themselves. [10]
j.
The Natural Approach
The natural approach emphasizes the principles that
are related to the language acquisition, instead of language learning as
traditional methods. It is claimed that the input hyphotesis, which is the main
principles of the natural approach, is consistenst with language acquisition.[11]
B. TECHNIQUE
1. The Definition of
techniques
In etymological,
the term is derived from the Greek method, namely tekhnikos. Techniques is the way teachers deliver teaching
materials that have been prepared (in method), based on the approach adopted.
The technique used by teachers depends on the teacher's ability to find a way
or stratagem in order to process learning can run smoothly and work well.
According
to expert:
a.
H. Douglas Brown (Longman: Second Edition), technique
(also commonly referred to by other terms). Any of a wide variety of exercises,
activities, or task used in language classroom for realizing lesson objectives.
b.
Edward Anthony (1963), techniques were the
specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with
method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.[12]
Based on the definition above we
can conclude that technique is an activity in the classroom to realizing lesson
objective that were consistent with method and therefore in harmony with an
approach as well.
2.
Categorizing
Technique
a. From
Manipulation to Communication
Techniques
can be thought of as existing along a continuum of possibilities between highly
manipulative and very communicative. At the extreme and of the manipulative end
and the manipulative side a technique a totally controlled by the teacher and
requires a predicted response from the student(s). Coral repetition and cued
substitution drills are examples of oral techniques at this extreme. Other
example are dictation (listening/writing) and reading aloud.
At
the communicative extreme, student’s responses are completely open-ended and
therefore unpredictable. Example include storytelling, brainstorming,
role-plays, certain game, etc. teacher are usually put into less controlled
role here, as student become free to creative with their responses and
interaction with other students. However keep in mind that a modicum of the
control, weather overt or covert, should always be present in the classroom.
b. Mechanical,
Meaningful, and Communicative drills
A
drill maybe defined a technique that focuses on a minimal number (usually one
or two) of language from (grammatical of phonological structure) through some
type of repetition. Drills are commonly done chorally or individually. And they
can take the form of simple repetition drills, substitution drills, and even
the rather horrifying aberration known as the moving slot substitution drills.
Repetition
drills require, for instance, that the repeat a word or phrase whether the
student understands it or not:
Teacher : the crocodile is in the hat
Student : the crocodile is in the hat
In a substitution drills, the
teacher provides a sentence, student repeat; teacher cues the student to change
one word o structure in the sentence, student repeat. For example:
Teacher : I play football yesterday
Student :
I play football yesterday
Teacher : Badminton
Student :
I play badminton yesterday
Teacher : Guitar
Student :
I play guitar yesterday
In a moving slot substitution
drill, the slot moves as the following examples:
Teacher : I play football yesterday
Student : I play
football yesterday
Teacher : Badminton
Student : I play
badminton yesterday
Teacher : Guitar
Student : I play
guitar yesterday
Teacher : He
Student : He
plays football yesterday
Teacher : In the afternoon
Student : He plays
football in the afternoon
Teacher : Want to
Student : He wants
to plays football in this afternoon
Here is what we can call quasi-communicative
practice that might go something like this, if you were trying to get students
to practice the past tense.
Teacher : Good morning, students. Did you
study last night?
Nuna : Yes, I did sir, I study
biology last night.
Teacher : good! Are you studied Boni?
Boni : No sir, my stomach was sick
so, I slept early.
This exercise an attempt to force
students to use the past tense but allowed them to choose meaningful replies.
The final word about drills is a
communicative approach to language teaching use of drilling techniques, but
only in moderation. A few short, snappy drills here and there, especially at
the lower levels of proficiency, can be quite useful in helping students to
establish structural patterns, rhythm, and certain pronunciation elements.
c. Controlled
to Free Techniques
Perhaps
the most useful classification of techniques for a teacher to use is a
continuum not unlike the first one above, but in this case considering the
extent to which you, the teacher, maintain, control over the learning activity.
It is important to understand what is meant by control. In the list below are a
few generalizations:
Controlled Free
Teacher-centered student-centered
Manipulative Communicative
Structured Open-ended
Predicted
student response Unpredicted response
Pre-planned
objectives negotiated
objectives
Set curriculum Cooperative
curriculum
Many controlled techniques are
manipulative, as described above. But controlled techniques sometimes have
communicative elements. The quasi-communicative drill just described, for
example, is highly controlled in that the teacher provides set question and
each has a short time in which to response.
CONCLUSION
From the above explanation that the method is in
principle the same sense that a way in order to achieve the goal, in this case
may involve economic, social, political, or religious. Elements of the method
may include procedures, systematic, logical, and well-planned and activities to
achieve the goal. As for the method in this discussion is the method used in
the study. Learning can be defined as the systematic and deliberate effort to
create the conditions so that learning activities and work effectively and efficiently.
In learning activities cannot be separated from the interaction between the
source of learning and learners, so as to implement the interactions takes various
ways for its implementation.
For the same method
learning techniques can be used vary, depending on a variety of these factors.
From the above it can be said that the learning technique is a strategy that
carried out by teachers in the implementation of teaching and learning
activities to obtain optimal results. Learning techniques are determined based
on the method used, and the method is based on the approach adopted. Learning
techniques can be defined as the way a person does in implementing a specific
method.
References
Diane Larsen-Freeman. 1086. Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching. New York: Oxford
University Press.
H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles An Interactive
Approach to Language Pedagogy, Longman: Second Edition.
John Dunlosky, Katherine A. Rowson,
Elizabeth J. Marsh, Mitchell J Nathan, and Daniel T. Willigham. 2013. Effective Learning Techniques: Promising
Directions from Cognitive and Educational Psychology. SAGE.
H. Douglas Brown, principles of language learning
and teaching Longman: fifth Edition.
Ag. Bambang Setiyadi, Teaching English As A
Foreign Language, Graha Ilmu : Yogyakarta, 2006.
[1]
Larsen-Freeman, Diane, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching, Oxford University
Press: New York: 1986, page 1-2.
[2] H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by
Principles An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, Longman: Second
Edition. Page 14.
[8] Ag.
Bambang setiyadi, teaching english as a foreign language, graha ilmu :
yogyakarta, 2006, page 111
[12]
John Dunlosky, Katherine A. Rowson, Elizabeth J. Marsh, Mitchell J Nathan, and
Daniel T. Willigham. Effective Learning
Techniques: Promising Directions from Cognitive and Educational Psychology.
SAGE: 2013. Page 5.
No comments:
Post a Comment